California RN and LPN Nursing CEUs
Meet Your California RN or LVN Continuing Education Requirements Quickly & Affordably.

Authors: Raymond Lengel (MSN, FNP-BC, RN)

Outcomes

The purpose of this course will be to provide an overview of arterial blood gas interpretation, raise awareness and understanding of the various aspects of arterial blood gases, and to provide a comfort level with the care of the patient by increasing the knowledge base.

Objectives

After completion of this course, the learner will:

  • List the steps in obtaining an arterial blood gas sample
  • Compare and contrast metabolic acidosis, metabolic alkalosis, respiratory acidosis, and respiratory alkalosis
  • Discuss the causes of metabolic acidosis and alkalosis
  • Discuss the causes of respiratory acidosis and alkalosis
  • Identify the role of the arterial blood gas in a trauma assessment

Introduction

Understanding the significance of the findings for arterial blood gases (ABG) is the first step in interpreting them. Without this understanding, the nurse cannot be expected to realize the implication of the results.

Adult students demonstrate various methods of learning to enhance their knowledge base. Finding the best education method for the individual is the first step to success in clinical competence.

Short educational modules for nurses in arterial blood gas analysis can have a significant impact on improving the knowledge of the nurse

Whatever the underlying cause for the acid-base disturbance, one must gain knowledge for interpretation of the ABG to establish the best course of treatment. Therefore, the healthcare provider will determine the limitations of therapy based on the results of the ABG.

Another recent analysis showed that teaching a stepwise approach to evaluating arterial blood gases and using case studies, along with tables and figures, could enhance the ability of the nurse to interpret arterial blood gases.

Arterial Blood Gas Sampling

Arterial blood gas sampling is a procedure that involves the direct puncture of an artery. It is associated with a low incidence of complications. It is used to determine blood gas exchange levels and assess renal, metabolic and respiratory function.

Indications for ABG include:

  • Determining the partial pressure of respiratory gases that are involved in ventilation and oxygenation
  • Evaluating arterial respiratory gases during diagnostic workups
  • Monitoring acid-bases status
  • Monitoring for metabolic, respiratory, and mixed acid-base disorders
  • Evaluating the effectiveness of mechanical ventilation in a patient with respiratory failure
  • Getting a blood sample when venous sampling is not feasible

Absolute contraindications to ABG include:

  • Local infection
  • Distorted anatomy
  • Abnormal Allen test – at the radial site (use a different site)
  • Severe peripheral vascular disease in the limb being tested
  • Arteriovenous fistulas
  • Vascular grafts

Relative contraindications to ABG include:

  • Severe coagulopathy
  • Currently taking blood thinners ( warfarin, heparin, direct thrombin inhibitors, or factor X inhibitors)
  • Use of thrombolytic agents

Factors that make ABG difficult:

  • Uncooperative patient
  • Pulses that cannot be identified easily
  • Difficult to position the patient
  • Obesity – because subcutaneous fat over access areas obscures landmarks
  • Vascular disease leading to rigidity in vessel walls
  • Poor distal perfusion – heart failure, hypovolemia, vasopressor therapy

Sources of errors include:

  • Air bubbles can increase PaO2 and lower PaCO2
  • Heparin may lower PaCO2
  • Gas may diffuse through a plastic syringe
  • Acid-base balance may be inaccurate in arterial blood in those with reduced cardiac output (CPR/circulatory failure)

ABG reflects the patient's physiologic state at the time the test was done. The radial artery is typically the preferred site because it has a collateral circulation and is accessible. When the radial artery is not feasible, the femoral or brachial artery can be used. The femoral artery is deeper, and there is a greater risk of damage to adjacent structures. It is close to the femoral vein and nerve. When the femoral artery is sampled, it requires monitoring and is often only done in an inpatient setting.

The brachial artery is also deep and is more difficult to identify. There are multiple problems with the brachial artery. It is a small-caliber vessel. It does not have good collateral circulation, and attaining hemostasis is more difficult.

Repeated punctures increase the risk of artery laceration, inadvertent venous sampling, hematoma, and scaring. When frequent sampling is needed, the use of an indwelling arterial catheter may be beneficial.

When it is difficult to identify sampling sites such as those with weak pulses, distorted anatomic landmarks, or when a deep vascular artery is being accessed, ultrasound-guided ABG sampling may be used. This allows for more accurate needle placement and reduces the risk of damage to the surrounding structures.

Table 1: Key Points to ABG Sampling
  • If there is a lack of pulsatile flow or the blood is very dark, a vein has likely been punctured
  • When no blood is obtained, pulling the needle back may help as the needle may have gone through the artery
  • If air bubbles are not removed the partial pressure of oxygen may be increased
  • For those with a lot of soft tissue or extra skin over the puncture site the nondominant hand can be used to smooth the skin
  • An ultrasound may be used to find the femoral or brachial artery
  • If no arterial blood flow occurs when the needle is in the body, the pulse should be found again, and the needle should be repositioned and redirected to the pulse
  • When there is poor distal perfusion, the plunger may be pulled back to get a blood sample, but this increases the risk of getting a venous sample. This occurs in those with advanced heart failure, hypovolemia or those on vasopressors
  • Do not puncture the femoral or brachial artery if there is poor perfusion distally

Allen Test

Before getting a sample of blood from the radial artery, collateral circulation should be assessed. This is commonly done with the Allen or modified Allen test.

The modified Allen test ensures ulnar artery collateral circulation and palmar arch patency. It is unknown if it can predict ischemic complications with radial artery occlusion (Theodore, 2019).

In the modified Allen test, the patient holds the hand high and clenches the fist. At the same time, the clinician compresses the radial and ulnar arteries. The hand is lowered, the fist is opened, and pressure is removed off the ulnar artery. Within 5-15 seconds, the color should return to the hand. This suggests that the ulnar artery and the superficial palmar arch are open. If it takes more than 15 seconds, the test is abnormal.

The Allen test (from which the modified Allen test evolved) is performed identically, except the Allen test is done two times. The pressure is released from the radial artery and once from the ulnar artery.

The patient should not overextend the hand or spread the fingers wide, leading to false-normal results.

Much debate has been held regarding the necessity to obtain an Allen Test before obtaining an ABG. Many believe the Allen Test is a standard of care and is written into policy at facilities across the country.

Because the definition of an abnormal Allen Test is difficult to describe, determining abnormality is challenging. In a study led by Jarvis, the conclusion was that the Allen Test was only accurate about 80% of the time. A more recent study looked at the Allen test and its ability to determine adequate collateral circulation in the palm. The study concluded that the Allen test is not valid as a screening tool for collateral circulation of the hand. It also cannot predict ischemia to the hand after an arterial blood gas measurement. It was concluded that inadequate evidence supports its use before arterial puncture (Romeu-Bordas et al., 2017). Even though the Allen Test is controversial, hospital policy must be adhered to at all times.

Performing ABGs

Technique

  • Determine the site to be sampled
  • The site is prepped in a sterile fashion
  • Consider local analgesia before arterial puncture as it reduces pain without negatively impacting the procedure
  • Use an ABG kit
  • Palpate the artery with the nondominant hand
  • Puncture the artery with the needle at a 45-degree angle relative to the skin
  • The syringe should fill on its own – get 2-3 mL of blood
  • Hold pressure on the site for 5-10 minutes

Before performing ABG, the patient should be educated about the procedure, including the risks and benefits. The patient should let the health care provider know if there is new/worsening pain, reduced movement, numbness/tingling in the limb, or active bleeding after the procedure is performed.

The patient should lie supine with the forearm supinated on a hard surface to get a sample from the radial artery. The wrist is extended 20-30 degrees; a small roll may be put under the wrist to make the radial artery more superficial. If a sample is taken from the femoral artery, the patient is supine with the leg in a neutral position. If blood is taken from the brachial artery, place the arm on a firm surface. The shoulder is abducted with the forearm supinated and the elbow extended.

When performing an ABG sampling, the provider should wear gloves and eye protection. The site should be cleaned with an antiseptic solution. The non-dominate hand locates the arterial pulse with the second and third fingers with both fingers proximal to the desired puncture site.

The needle is inserted at a 45-degree angle aiming at the artery, with the bevel facing upwards. When the needle is angled, it reduces vessel trauma. It allows the muscle fibers to seal the puncture site after the puncture.

When the blood starts filling the syringe, remove the nondominant hand. After 2-3 ml is obtained, the needle is removed, and gauze is placed over the site with the nondominant hand to hold pressure for five minutes. Pressure may need to be held for longer periods for those at risk for bleeding. Afterward, an adhesive dressing should be placed over the puncture site.

The excess air should be removed from the syringe, capped, and placed in ice while awaiting analysis. No air bubbles should be present as this may underestimate the PaC02 and overestimate the PaO2.

The nurse must monitor for complications. Active profuse bleeding from the puncture site suggests that there is vessel laceration. Compartment syndrome may result from an expanding hematoma that compromises circulation. Compartment syndrome is suggested by the six P's: pain, pallor, paresthesia, paralysis, poikilothermia, and pulselessness. Ischemia from a thrombus, vasospasm or arterial occlusion presents as pulselessness, color change, and distal coldness. A nerve injury may present with paresis and persistent pain. Infection presents with fever and local erythema.

ABG Interpretation

When interpreting the ABG results, one must first know the five major components of the ABG to be addressed: oxygen saturation (SaO2), partial pressure of oxygen (PaO2), acidity or alkalinity (pH), partial pressure of carbon dioxide (PaCO2), and bicarbonate ions concentration (HCO3).

Table 2: Definitions important to know when Interpreting ABG
  • Acidemia – arterial pH less than 7.35
  • Acidosis – lowering of the extracellular fluid pH caused by an elevated PCO2 or a reduced HCO3
  • Metabolic acidosis – reduction in pH and serum HCO3
  • Respiratory acidosis – reduction in pH with an elevation of the arterial PCO2
  • Alkalemia – arterial pH above 7.45
  • Alkalosis – elevation of the extracellular fluid pH caused by a fall in PCO2 or a rise in HCO3
  • Metabolic alkalosis - elevation in pH and serum HCO3
  • Respiratory alkalosis – elevation of the pH with a reduction in the arterial PCO2
  • Mixed acid-base disorder – more than one acid-base disorder at the same time
  • Anion gap = (Na) - (Cl + HCO3)
    • Normal range is 8-16 mEq/L

The four main acid-base disorders are respiratory acidosis, respiratory alkalosis, metabolic acidosis, and metabolic alkalosis.

Respiratory alkalosis and acidosis may be classified as acute or chronic. It takes up to five days for the renal system to compensate for respiratory disorders.

The acid-base balance of the blood is maintained by two areas of the body, which are the lungs and the kidneys. The lower pH represents acidosis, and the higher pH represents alkalosis, with the normal pH range from 7.35-7.45.

The PaO2 evaluates the oxygen in plasma and has an 80-95 mm Hg normal range. The PaO2 does not measure the amount of oxygen attached to the hemoglobin. SaO2 measures the amount of oxygen attached to the hemoglobin. The normal range is 95-99% and generally should be above 90%.

PaCO2 evaluates the ventilation component. The normal range is 35-45 mm Hg. However, the value is inversely related to ventilation. For example, decreased ventilation has a higher value, and increased ventilation has a lower value. Therefore, hyperventilation causes alkalosis because the patient is blowing off carbon dioxide, and hypoventilation causes acidosis because the patient is retaining carbon dioxide. The body adjusts for these conditions by changing the respiratory rate (Romeu-Bordas et al., 2017).

HCO3 (bicarbonate) is regulated by the kidneys and evaluates the metabolic component. The normal range is 22-26 mEq/L. Below 22 mEq/L is considered acidosis, and above 26 mEq/L is alkalosis. The body can adjust to the abnormalities in the HCO3 levels but not as quickly as it can to the abnormal PaCO2 levels. Several days could be required to make the necessary adjustments to bring the HCO3 levels to a normal range (Byrd, 2018).

Table 3: Normal ABG Values
TEST NORMAL VALUE
pH 7.35-7.45
HCO3 22-26 mEq/L
PaCO2 35-45 mm Hg
PaO2 80-95 mm Hg
SaO2 95-99%

Four conditions are evaluated based on the ABG: respiratory acidosis, respiratory alkalosis, metabolic acidosis, and metabolic alkalosis. As we explore these conditions, the potential causes, the ABG values, and the compensatory mechanisms, we will better understand what is happening within the body.

Respiratory Acidosis

Respiratory acidosis is a condition that happens when the lungs cannot eliminate enough of the carbon dioxide made by the body. The body excretes the extra hydrogen in the urine and exchanges it for bicarbonate ions. HCO3 rises to restore the body to a normal pH when this happens. Until the pH returns to normal, the PaCO2 may stay elevated.

Any situation that can cause the patient to develop a depressed respiratory status can cause this medical condition. Examples of these situations could be hypoventilation, asphyxia, central nervous system depression, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, infection, and drug-induced respiratory depression (Table 9). 

The ABG values one would see with respiratory acidosis would be: pH < 7.35; PaCO2 > 45 mmHg; and HCO3 > 26 mEq/L if compensating.

In acute respiratory acidosis, to compensate, the HCO3 increases approximately 1 mEq/L for each 10 mmHg in PaCO2. In chronic respiratory acidosis (after 3-5 days), the HCO3 will increase up to 5 mEq/L per 10 mmHg of PaCO2. If there is a mild-to-moderate chronic respiratory acidosis, suggested by a PaCO2 less than 70 mmHg, the pH may be in the low-normal range or slightly reduced. If the pH is significantly acidic in chronic acidosis, there is typically a co-existent metabolic acidosis or an acute respiratory acidosis. If the pH is 7.40 or more, there is likely a co-existent acute respiratory alkalosis or a metabolic alkalosis.

Table 4: Respiratory Acidosis
pH Decreased
PaCO2 Increased
HCO3 Normal (increased if compensating)

Respiratory Alkalosis

Respiratory alkalosis is a compensatory mechanism of the body aimed to increase the excretion of HCO3 and retention of the hydrogen ions. Respiratory alkalosis lowers the HCO3 and restores pH to normal. Conditions that cause the respiratory system to be overstimulated can be extenuating factors in respiratory alkalosis such as hyperventilation (see Table 9). In addition, respiratory alkalosis can be seen in those who are critically ill, such as those who are on ventilators or those with lung or heart disease (Byrd, 2018).

The ABG values one would see with respiratory alkalosis would be: pH > 7.45; PaCO2 < 35 mm Hg; and HCO3 < 22 mEq/L if compensating.

In acute respiratory alkalosis, the compensation is to lower the serum HCO3 by 2 mEq/L for every 10 mmHg reduction in PaCO2. In chronic respiratory alkalosis (after 3-5 days) the serum HCO3 falls about 4-5 mEq/L for every 10 mmHg reduction in PaCO2 (Emmett & Palmer, 2018).

Table 5: Respiratory Alkalosis
pH Increased
PaCO2 Decreased
HCO3 Normal (decreased if compensating)

Metabolic Acidosis

When a patient demonstrates metabolic acidosis, their body pulls the HCO3 into the cells as a buffer and depletes the plasma level. The body begins compensating by increasing the ventilation, and thus, renal retention of the HCO3 takes place.

When patients present with the following conditions, one must consider the patient could be a candidate for metabolic acidosis: HCO3 loss from diarrhea, shock, renal tubular acidosis, drug intoxication, salicylate poisoning, renal failure, diabetic ketoacidosis, and circulatory failure producing lactic acid.

ABG values one would see with metabolic acidosis would be: pH < 7.35; HCO3 < 22 mEq/L; and PaCO2 < 35 mm Hg if compensating.

Respiratory compensation for metabolic acidosis causes a reduction in the arterial PaCO2 by about 1.2 mmHg for every 1 mEq/L reduction in the serum HCO3. There is a likely underlying neurologic or respiratory disease (Emmett & Palmer, 2018).

Calculation of the serum anion gap should be determined in metabolic acidosis. The anion gap may be high in metabolic acidosis, normal or combined. Determining the anion gap will help determine the cause of metabolic acidosis.

Table 6: Metabolic Acidosis
pH Decreased
PaCO2 Normal (decreased if compensating)
HCO3 Decreased

One generally considers the ABG a test for respiratory conditions; however, a study of ABGs in Brazil to test patients for metabolic acidosis about sepsis and shock was conducted. The study revealed that a group that could not clear their inorganic ions had a higher morbidity rate, whereas those who could correct their acidosis survived.

The severely septic patient who developed acute renal failure upon arrival to the intensive care unit (ICU) had many tests, including ABG. Results of the ABG revealed: a pH of 7.32, PaCO2 of 45 mmHg, and an HCO3 of 21mEq/L. Without treatment, metabolic acidosis will worsen; steps need to be taken to bring the patient into a compensatory mode to recovery.

Treatment of metabolic acidosis depends on the cause and whether it is acute or chronic. In severe metabolic acidosis, sodium bicarbonate is sometimes used.

Metabolic Alkalosis

With metabolic alkalosis, one will see an increased level of HCO3. This could be caused by several factors such as too much bicarbonate during a code, excess hydrogen loss during vomiting or suctioning, potassium loss from diuretics or steroids, or excessive alkali ingestion. The kidneys will increase the HCO3 excretion trying to conserve the hydrogen. The respiratory system will compensate by decreasing the ventilation, conserving CO2, and raising PaCO2. Patients with normal kidney function can excrete excess bicarbonate in the urine, so if metabolic alkalosis is maintained, there is an inability to excrete bicarbonate in the urine.

ABG values one would see with metabolic alkalosis would be: pH > 7.45; HCO3 > 26 mEq/L and PaCO2 > 45 Hg if compensating.

Respiratory compensation of metabolic alkalosis typically raises the PaCO2 approximately 0.7 mmHg for every 1 mEq/L increase in HCO3. The arterial PaCO2 rarely goes above 55 mmHg.

Table 7: Metabolic Alkalosis
pH Increased
PaCO2 Normal (increased if compensating)
HCO3 Increased

Compensation

Acid-base disorders are typically associated with a compensatory response that lessens the HCO3/ PaCO2 ratio change and, consequently, in pH. For example, if there is metabolic acidosis (a reduction in the serum HCO3), there should be respiratory compensation by moving the PaCO2 in the same direction as the serum HCO3 (falling). The respiratory compensation lessens the change in the serum HCO3 to PaCO2 and consequently the pH. Respiratory compensation is a rapid adjustment. In metabolic acidosis, the respiratory compensation starts within 30 minutes and is done in 12-24 hours.

If the pH is in the normal range in the face of an abnormal PCO2 & HCO3, compensation has taken place.

A respiratory acid-base disorder leads to compensation in two phases: immediate and delayed. The immediate change is small in serum HCO3 in the same direction as the PaCO2. If the respiratory condition persists, the kidneys produce larger changes in the HCO3. This is meant to stabilize the pH.

In respiratory alkalosis, urinary HCO3 and hydrogen ion secretion are reduced. In respiratory acidosis, hydrogen ion secretion and HCO3 are increased to compensate. Renal compensation takes longer than respiratory compensation; it takes three to five days to complete compensation.

A glance at the four disorders demonstrates what happens with the pH, the initiating event causing the disorder, and the compensatory effect shown in the following table (Table 8). It is important to remember that compensating effects are seen in chronic conditions.

Table 8: Overview of Acid-Base Disorder
Disorder pH Initiating Event Compensating Effect
Respiratory Acidosis ↑ PaCO2 ↑ HCO3
Respiratory Alkalosis ↓ PaCO2 ↓ HCO3
Metabolic Acidosis ↓ HCO3 ↓ PaCO2
Metabolic Alkalosis ↑ HCO3 ↑ PaCO2

Role of ABG in Trauma Assessment

Studies have shown that along with other indicators such as the Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS), the ABG results can serve as a strong indicator of a patient's mortality during the hospital course. A recent study showed that acid-base disturbances were predictors of death in major trauma patients.

Addressing the GCS of each trauma patient arriving in the ED is an important step in the assessment process. Using the information included in the following Glasgow Coma Scale, the nurse can assess eye-opening, motor response, and verbal response.

GLASGOW COMA SCALE
Eyes Open Spontaneous 4
To verbal command 3
To pain 2
No response 1
Best Motor Response to verbal command Obeys 6
Best Motor Response to painful stimulus Localizes pain 5
Flexion-withdrawal 4
Flexion-abnormal 3
Extension 2
No response 1
Best Verbal Response Oriented and converses 5
Disoriented and converses 4
Inappropriate words 3
Incomprehensible sounds 2
No response 1

Patients arriving in the Emergency Department (ED) post-trauma receive a head-to-toe trauma assessment, including the GCS. When head trauma, a GCS of < 8 indicates a severe head injury and generally has a poor outcome. The low GCS coupled with a strong ion gap is a strong predictor of hospital mortality. Therefore, a vascular injury must be assessed along with other areas of assessment and fluid resuscitation initiated to prevent further decline.

However, a patient can arrive with a GCS of 15, indicating they have spontaneous eye-opening, obey verbal commands, and is oriented and conversing. This patient can be suffering from respiratory distress caused by a traumatic injury to the lungs; therefore, when used alone, the GCS may be a poor indicator of the patient's condition.

Case Study 1

A 50-year-old female arrives in the ED via ambulance. She was the vehicle driver that ran head-on into the median underpass on the interstate. She wore a seat belt but hit the steering wheel before the airbag deployed. When she arrived in the emergency department, she had a GCS of 15 and was anxious. She had bruising to her chest from the seat belt at the inspection, with no visible head injury noted. Her vital signs were within normal limits. Shortly after arriving in the ED, she complained of needing a bowel movement and difficulty breathing. Her oxygen saturation dropped to 88% on room air. An ABG was obtained with the following results: pH 7.32, PaCO2 47 mmHg, and HCO3 28 mEq/L. Vital signs have slightly changed from being within normal limits to blood pressure 120/70 mm Hg, HR 102, and respiratory rate 30.

Understanding the patient's blood gas reveals a respiratory acidosis; preparations begin to treat the cause when the results of the x-ray reveal a left side pneumothorax.

Table 9: Causes of Acid-Base Disturbances
Causes of Respiratory Acidosis
  • COPD
  • Severe asthma
  • Obstructive sleep apnea
  • Chest wall disorders – kyphoscoliosis, flail chest, ankylosing spondylitis
  • Obesity
  • Sedative/narcotic overdose
  • Neuromuscular disease – myasthenia gravis, ALS, Guillain-Barré Syndrome
  • CNS depression – encephalitis, trauma
Causes of Respiratory Alkalosis
  • Hyperventilation
  • Fever
  • Anxiety
  • Hypoxemia
  • Pregnancy
Causes of Metabolic Acidosis
  • Increased acid production – generally increased anion gap
    • Ketoacidosis
    • Lactic acidosis
    • Ingestions – aspirin, methanol, ethylene glycol
  • Loss of bicarbonate – generally normal anion gap
    • Diarrhea
    • Intestinal tube drainage
    • Carbonic anhydrase inhibitor
    • Renal tubular acidosis Type 2
  • Decreased renal acid secretion
    • Chronic kidney disease
    • Renal tubular acidosis Type 1 and 4
Causes of Metabolic Alkalosis
  • Renal hydrogen loss
    • Diuretics
    • Primary mineralocorticoids excess
  • Gastrointestinal hydrogen loss
    • Chronic diarrhea
    • Vomiting
    • NG suctioning
  • Contraction alkalosis
    • Diuresis
    • Sweat loss in cystic fibrosis
    • Vomiting/NG suction in achlorhydria
  • Intracellular shift of hydrogen
    • Low serum potassium
  • Alkali administration
How do you interpret ABG results?
ABG Cheat Sheet
  pH PaCO2 HCO3  
Metabolic Acidosis < 7.35 35-45 < 22  
Metabolic Alkalosis > 7.45 35-45 >26  
Respiratory Acidosis < 7.35 > 45 22-26  
Respiratory Alkalosis > 7.45 < 35 22-26  
Fully Compensated Metabolic Acidosis 7.35-7.45 <35 <22 pH usually < 7.4
Fully Compensated Metabolic Alkalosis 7.35-7.45 >45 >26 pH usually > 7.4
Fully Compensated Respiratory Acidosis 7.35-7.45 >45 >26 pH usually < 7.4
Fully Compensated Respiratory Alkalosis 7.35-7.45 <35 <22 pH usually > 7.4

Case Study 2

A 45-year-old female presented to the emergency department with severe diarrhea for the last two days. She has the following ABG.

  • Arterial pH - 7.25
  • HCO3 – 12 mEq/L
  • PaCO2 - 26 mmHg

The pH is low. Therefore, the patient has acidemia. The low HCO3 suggests metabolic acidosis. The HCO3 is 12 mEq/L below the normal (24 mEq/L). This should (and did) lead to respiratory compensation with a 14 mmHg fall in PaCO2 (the normal PaCO2 is 40 mmHg). Respiratory compensation for metabolic acidosis is when the arterial PaCO2 falls about 1.2 mmHg per 1 mEq/L reduction in the serum HCO3 concentration.

This patient has a partially compensated metabolic acidosis (the pH is not in the normal range – so it is only partially compensated). If the PaCO2 was significantly higher (above 26 mmHg) than expected, there would be a concurrent respiratory acidosis (e.g., an obtunded patient).

A concurrent respiratory alkalosis might be present if the PaCO2 was significantly lower than expected (below 26 mmHg). Respiratory alkalosis with metabolic acidosis is often seen in salicylate intoxication or septic shock.

The patient is noted to have a normal anion gap, which is consistent with a metabolic acidosis caused by diarrhea.

Conclusion

Regardless of the patient's condition, an important aspect of the ABG is to take a systematic approach to the interpretation of the ABG and determine between the differential diagnoses. Know the patient history and begin treatment as soon as feasible to ensure the best possible outcomes. Placing the patient at the top of the pyramid is the most significant step in the process.

References

  • Byrd RB. Respiratory Alkalosis. Updated October 3, 2018. Accessed August 14, 2019. Visit Source.
  • Emmett M, Palmer BF. Simple and mixed acid-base disorders. www.uptodate.com Updated October 8, 2018. Accessed August 13, 2019.
  • Romeu-Bordas, Ballesteros-Pena S. Reliability and validity of the modified Allen test: a systematic review and meta-analysis Emergencias. 2017;29(2):126-135.
  • Theodore AC. Arterial blood gasses. www.uptodate.com Updated February 27, 2019. Accessed August 13, 2019.
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