Course
ABG Interpretation - 2 Contact Hours
This course is approved through the California Board of Registered Nursing Provider #CEP 13509.
Course Outline
Outcomes
The course will provide an overview of arterial blood gas interpretation, raise awareness and understanding of the various aspects of arterial blood gases, and increase the healthcare provider's knowledge base.
Objectives
After completion of this course, the learner will be able to:
List the steps in obtaining an arterial blood gas (ABG) sample.
Compare and contrast metabolic acidosis, metabolic alkalosis, respiratory acidosis, and respiratory alkalosis.
List common causes of metabolic acidosis, metabolic alkalosis, respiratory acidosis, and respiratory alkalosis.
Interpret ABGs given a clinical scenario.
Identify compensation of ABGs given a clinical scenario.
Introduction
Understanding the significance of the findings of arterial blood gases (ABGs) is the first step in interpreting them. Without this understanding, the healthcare provider cannot be expected to realize the implications of the results.
Adult students demonstrate various methods of learning to enhance their knowledge base. Finding the best education method for the individual is the first step to success in clinical competence. Short educational modules for healthcare providers in ABG analysis can significantly impact improving knowledge. Therefore, this course will use case studies to help learners understand ABGs.
Many disorders can cause acid-base imbalances.
ABG Analysis
Arterial Blood Gas Sampling
ABG sampling involves the direct puncture of an artery. It is associated with a low incidence of complications, determines blood gas exchange levels, and assesses renal, metabolic, and respiratory function.
Determining the partial pressure of respiratory gases that are involved in ventilation and oxygenation Evaluating arterial respiratory gases during diagnostic workups Monitoring acid-base status Monitoring for metabolic, respiratory, and mixed acid-base disorders Evaluating the effectiveness of mechanical ventilation in a patient with respiratory failure Getting a blood sample when venous sampling is not feasible
Local infection Distorted anatomy Abnormal Allen test – at the radial site Severe peripheral vascular disease in the limb being tested Arteriovenous fistulas Vascular grafts
Severe coagulopathy Currently taking blood thinners (warfarin, heparin, direct thrombin inhibitors, or factor X inhibitors) Use of thrombolytic agents
Uncooperative patient Pulses that cannot be identified easily Difficulty in positioning the patient Obesity – because subcutaneous fat over access areas obscures landmarks Vascular disease leading to rigidity in vessel walls Poor distal perfusion – e.g., heart failure, dehydration
Air bubbles can increase the partial pressure of oxygen in arterial blood (PaO2) and lower the partial pressure of carbon dioxide in arterial blood PaCO2 Excessive heparin can distort values Delay in analyzing the specimen Gas may diffuse through a plastic syringe Acid-base balance may be inaccurate in arterial blood in those with reduced cardiac output (cardiopulmonary resuscitation [CPR]/circulatory failure)
ABGs reflect the patient's physiologic state when the test is done.
The brachial artery is also deep and is more difficult to identify. There are multiple obstacles to the brachial artery. It is a small-caliber vessel with poor collateral circulation, and attaining hemostasis is more difficult.
|
(Danckers, 2022) |
Allen Test
In the modified Allen test, the patient flexes their arm and clenches the fist to exsanguinate the hand. At the same time, the clinician compresses the radial and ulnar arteries. The arm is then extended (to no more than 180 degrees; the patient should not overextend the hand or spread the fingers wide, leading to false-normal results), the fist is opened, and pressure is removed from the ulnar artery. Within 5-15 seconds, the color should return to the hand, which suggests that the ulnar artery and the superficial palmar arch are open. If it takes more than 15 seconds, the test is abnormal.
Modified Allen Test
The Allen test (from which the modified Allen test evolved) is performed similarly. The patient raises both arms above the head for thirty seconds, then clenches their fists while the clinician occludes both radial arteries. The hands are opened rapidly, and the initial pallor should transition to normal color as the ulnar arteries return blood flow. The test is done again while occluding the ulnar arteries. Normal color should return.
Much debate has been held regarding obtaining a modified Allen test before obtaining ABGs. Many believe the modified Allen test is a standard of care and should be written into policy at facilities nationwide. Unfortunately, it is not definitely known if it can predict ischemic complications when radial artery occlusion is present (Danckers, 2022).
Determining abnormality is challenging because the definition of an abnormal Allen test is difficult to describe. In a study by Jarvis et al. (2000), the conclusion was that the Allen test was only accurate about 80% of the time.
A recent study examined the modified Allen test and its ability to determine adequate collateral circulation in the palm. The study concluded that the modified Allen test is not valid as a screening tool for collateral circulation of the hand. It also cannot predict ischemia in the hand after an ABG measurement. It was concluded that inadequate evidence supports its use before arterial puncture (Romeu-Bordas & & Ballesteros-Peña, 2017).
Golamari and Gilchrist (2021) agree with the lack of evidence to support the Allen test's use. The authors suggest that the test depends on the clinician's skill; abnormal findings are not standardized, and observational bias can occur. In addition, the transformation of abnormal testing into a clinical outcome is unknown. Even though the Allen test is controversial, hospital policy must always be followed.
Performing Arterial Blood Gas Sampling
Technique
- Determine the site to be sampled.
- The site is prepped in a sterile fashion.
- Consider local anesthesia before arterial puncture, as it reduces pain without negatively impacting the procedure.
- Use an ABG kit.
- Palpate the artery with the non-dominant hand.
- Puncture the artery with the needle at a 45-degree angle relative to the skin.
- The syringe should fill on its own – get 2-3 mL of blood.
Hold pressure on the site for 5-10 minutes.
Before performing ABGs, the patient should be educated about the procedure, including the risks and benefits. The patient should inform the health care provider if there is new/worsening pain, reduced movement, numbness/tingling in the limb, or active bleeding after the procedure.
The patient should lie supine with the forearm supinated on a hard surface to get a sample from the radial artery. The wrist is extended 20-30 degrees; a small roll may be put under the wrist to make the radial artery more superficial. If a sample is taken from the femoral artery, the patient is supine with the leg in a neutral position. Place the arm on a firm surface if blood is taken from the brachial artery. The shoulder is abducted with the forearm supinated and the elbow extended.
The provider should wear gloves and eye protection when performing ABG sampling. The site should be cleaned with an antiseptic solution. The non-dominant hand locates the arterial pulse with the second and third fingers, with both fingers proximal to the desired puncture site.
When the blood starts filling the syringe, remove the non-dominant hand. After 2-3 ml is obtained, the needle is removed, and gauze is placed over the site with the non-dominant hand to hold pressure for five minutes. Pressure may need to be held longer for those at risk for bleeding. Afterward, an adhesive dressing should be placed over the puncture site.
The excess air should be removed from the syringe, capped, and placed in ice while awaiting analysis. No air bubbles should be present as this may underestimate the PaCO2 and overestimate the PaO2.
The nurse must monitor for complications.
Arterial Blood Gas Interpretation
When interpreting the ABG results, one must first know the five major components of the ABG to be addressed: oxygen saturation (SaO2), PaO2, acidity or alkalinity (pH), PaCO2, and bicarbonate ion concentration (HCO3).
|
(Sood et al., 2010) |
The four main acid-base disorders are respiratory acidosis, respiratory alkalosis, metabolic acidosis, and metabolic alkalosis.
PaO2 evaluates the oxygen in plasma and has an 80-95 millimeters of mercury (mm Hg) normal range. PaO2 does not measure the amount of oxygen attached to the hemoglobin.
Test | Normal Values |
---|---|
pH | 7.35-7.45 |
HCO3 | 22-26 mEq/L |
PaCO2 | 35-45 mm Hg |
PaO2 | 80-95 mm Hg |
SaO2 | 95-100% |
*Note: These ranges can differ slightly depending on the facility/scale used. | |
(Castro et al., 2022) |
Four abnormal conditions can be identified based on the ABGs: respiratory acidosis, respiratory alkalosis, metabolic acidosis, and metabolic alkalosis. We will better understand what is happening within the body as we explore these conditions, the potential causes, the ABG values, and the compensatory mechanisms.
Respiratory Acidosis
pH | Decreased |
PaCO2 | Increased |
HCO3 | Normal (increased if compensating) |
(Castro et al., 2022) |
Respiratory Alkalosis
Respiratory alkalosis is an increased pH due to a respiratory process.
The ABG values one would see with respiratory alkalosis would be pH > 7.45, PaCO2 < 35 mm Hg, and HCO3 < 22 mEq/L if compensating.
In acute respiratory alkalosis, the compensation is to lower the serum HCO3 by 2 mEq/L for every 10 mm Hg reduction in PaCO2. In chronic respiratory alkalosis (after 3-5 days), the serum HCO3 falls about 4-5 mEq/L for every 10 mm Hg reduction in PaCO2.
pH | Increased |
PaCO2 | Decreased |
HCO3 | Normal (decreased if compensating) |
(Castro et al., 2022) |
Metabolic Acidosis
Calculation of the serum anion gap should be determined in metabolic acidosis. Online calculators can help with this calculation. The anion gap is typically classified as high or normal, and determining the anion gap will help determine the cause of metabolic acidosis. The anion gap is affected by albumin levels. If the albumin levels drop by one point, the anion gap drops by 2.5.
ABG values one would see with metabolic acidosis would be pH < 7.35, HCO3 < 22 mEq/L, and PaCO2 < 35 mm Hg if compensating. Symptoms present in metabolic acidosis include anxiety, headache, nausea, vomiting, low blood pressure, and hyperventilation.
Respiratory compensation for metabolic acidosis causes a reduction in the arterial PaCO2 by about 1.2 mm Hg for every 1 mEq/L reduction in the serum HCO3. The response starts in about thirty minutes and is typically complete within 24 hours.
Winter's formula [Expected CO2 = (Bicarbonate x 1.5) + (8 +/- 2)] predicts the expected carbon dioxide in metabolic acidosis. The expected carbon dioxide should align with the measured carbon dioxide in normal compensation. If the predicted carbon dioxide is higher than expected, there is an additional respiratory acidosis. If it is less than expected, an additional respiratory alkalosis is present.
pH | Decreased |
PaCO2 | Normal (decreased if compensating) |
HCO3 | Decreased |
(Castro et al., 2022) |
If there is an increased anion gap, one can use the mnemonic MUDPILES to predict the cause of acidosis. MUDPILES stands for: Methanol, Uremia, Diabetic ketoacidosis, Propylene Glycol, Isoniazid, Lactic acidosis, Ethylene Glycol (anti-freeze), and Salicylates. Normal anion gap metabolic acidosis is caused by chronic renal failure, renal tubular acidosis, ureteroureterostomy, gastrointestinal loss, laxative overuse, ammonium chloride, carbonic anhydrase inhibitors, aldosterone deficiency, and excessive chloride administration.
Treatment of metabolic acidosis depends on the cause and whether it is acute or chronic. In severe metabolic acidosis, sodium bicarbonate is sometimes used.
Metabolic Alkalosis
ABG values one would see with metabolic alkalosis would be pH > 7.45, HCO3 > 26 mEq/L, and PaCO2 > 45 mm Hg if compensating. An example of metabolic alkalosis would include a 70-year-old with heart failure who is on daily furosemide therapy and presents after returning from a trip to Mexico, where he contracted a gastrointestinal virus that resulted in 3 days of vomiting. In the emergency department, ABGs showed a pH of 7.51, HCO3 of 33 mEq/L, and PaCO2 of 43 mm Hg.
The respiratory system will compensate by decreasing ventilation and raising PaCO2, lowering arterial pH toward normal. Respiratory compensation of metabolic alkalosis typically raises the PaCO2 by approximately 0.7 mm Hg for every 1 mEq/L increase in HCO3. Arterial PaCO2 rarely goes above 55 mm Hg. Compensation is calculated by determining the expected CO2 = 0.7 X HCO3 + 20 (+/-5). In the above example, the expected CO2 would be 43 (38-48), so compensation is occurring.
pH | Increased |
PaCO2 | Normal (increased if compensating) |
HCO3 | Increased |
(Castro et al., 2022) |
Compensation
Generally, after the primary acid-base disorder, there is compensation in an attempt to normalize the pH. In primary metabolic acidosis, the compensation involves respiratory alkalosis. In primary metabolic alkalosis, the compensation is respiratory acidosis. In primary respiratory acidosis, the compensation is metabolic alkalosis. If the primary disorder is respiratory alkalosis, the compensation is metabolic acidosis.
Compensation is associated with many key factors. Overcompensation does not occur. For example, in a patient with respiratory acidosis who compensates with metabolic alkalosis, the body will not push the pH to the alkalemia side of normal.
An example of full compensation would be pH of 7.37, PaCO2 of 26 mm hg, and HCO3 of 16 mEq/L. The pH is closer to an acidotic state (normal pH range 7.35-7.45), with low bicarbonate (which is acidotic – representing the initial disorder), and the carbon dioxide compensates by being in the alkalotic range. The example represents a fully compensated metabolic acidosis. |
Table 8 discusses what happens in each disorder regarding the pH, the initiating event causing the disorder, and the compensatory effect.
Disorder | pH | Initiating Event | Compensating Effect |
---|---|---|---|
Respiratory Acidosis | ↓ | ↑ PaCO2 | ↑ HCO3 |
Respiratory Alkalosis | ↑ | ↓ PaCO2 | ↓ HCO3 |
Metabolic Acidosis | ↓ | ↓ HCO3 | ↓ PaCO2 |
Metabolic Alkalosis | ↑ | ↑ HCO3 | ↑ PaCO2 |
(Hamilton et al., 2017) |
Case Study 1
A 50-year-old female arrives in the emergency department via ambulance. She was the vehicle driver that ran head-on into the median underpass on the interstate. She wore a seat belt but hit the steering wheel before the airbag deployed. When she arrived in the emergency department, she had a Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) of 15 and was anxious. She had bruising to her chest from the seat belt, with no visible head injury noted.
Along with other indicators, such as the GCS, the ABG results can strongly indicate a patient's mortality during the hospital course. A recent study showed that acid-base disturbances were predictors of death in major trauma patients (Mohsenian et al., 2018).
Addressing the GCS of each trauma patient arriving in the emergency department is an important step in the assessment process. The nurse can assess eye-opening, motor, and verbal responses using the information included in the GCS (Table 9).
Patients arriving in the emergency department post-trauma receive a head-to-toe trauma assessment, including the GCS. A GCS of < 8 indicates a severe head injury and generally has a poor outcome in head trauma.
However, a patient can arrive with a GCS of 15, indicating they have spontaneous eye-opening, obey verbal commands, and are oriented and conversing. This patient can suffer from respiratory distress caused by a traumatic lung injury; therefore, when used alone, the GCS may be a poor indicator of the patient's condition.
Upon arrival in the emergency department, her vital signs were within normal limits. Shortly after arriving, she complained of needing to have a bowel movement and difficulty breathing. Her oxygen saturation dropped to 88% on room air.
Eyes Open | Spontaneous | 4 |
To verbal command | 3 | |
To pain | 2 | |
No response | 1 | |
Best Motor Response | Obeys commands | 6 |
Localizes pain | 5 | |
Withdrawals from pain | 4 | |
Abnormal flexion | 3 | |
Abnormal extension | 2 | |
No response | 1 | |
Best Verbal Response | Oriented | 5 |
Confused | 4 | |
Inappropriate words | 3 | |
Incomprehensible sounds | 2 | |
No response | 1 | |
(Jain & Iverson, 2023) |
Causes of Respiratory Acidosis |
---|
|
Causes of Respiratory Alkalosis |
|
Causes of Metabolic Acidosis |
|
Causes of Metabolic Alkalosis |
|
(Hamilton et al., 2017) |
pH | PaCO2 | HCO3 | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Metabolic Acidosis | < 7.35 | 35-45 | < 22 | |
Metabolic Alkalosis | > 7.45 | 35-45 | > 26 | |
Respiratory Acidosis | < 7.35 | > 45 | 22-26 | |
Respiratory Alkalosis | > 7.45 | < 35 | 22-26 | |
Fully Compensated Metabolic Acidosis | 7.35-7.45 | < 35 | < 22 | pH usually < 7.4 |
Fully Compensated Metabolic Alkalosis | 7.35-7.45 | > 45 | > 26 | pH usually > 7.4 |
Fully Compensated Respiratory Acidosis | 7.35-7.45 | > 45 | > 26 | pH usually < 7.4 |
Fully Compensated Respiratory Alkalosis | 7.35-7.45 | < 35 | < 22 | pH usually > 7.4 |
(Castro et al., 2022; Sood et al., 2010) |
Case Study 3
A 42-year-old female presents to the emergency department via ambulance. The patient reports that she was driving home from work and started sweating profusely but attributed the sweating to the lack of air conditioning in the car. When she got home, she noticed she was experiencing shortness of breath, followed by her heart racing and chest pain. She sat down to drink some cold water, then developed dizziness and felt like she would pass out. In addition, she experienced numbness and tingling in both arms.
She then called an ambulance and was brought to the emergency room. After taking a good history, the emergency room physician performed a complete physical exam, which showed a female who appeared of her stated age in mild distress but could speak in full sentences with no major abnormalities on exam except slightly elevated blood pressure and heart rate.
The diagnostic workup was reasonably unremarkable and included a normal complete blood count, normal liver and kidney function, electrolytes within normal limits, negative cardiac enzymes, and a negative d-dimer. The chest x-ray was unremarkable, and an EKG showed no ischemic changes and sinus tachycardia at 110 beats per minute.
About ten minutes after all her results returned, her heart rate, blood pressure, and respiratory rate increased, and ABGs were drawn. They revealed a pH of 7.5, PaCO2 of 28 mm Hg, and an HCO3 of 23 mEq/L.
The patient's presentation reveals a respiratory alkalosis, and her negative workup suggests the presentation likely represents a panic attack. The patient was given a beta-blocker and lorazepam and monitored overnight with complete normalization of all signs and symptoms.
Conclusion
Appropriate use of ABGs is an important aspect of good clinical care. Clinicians must interpret the ABGs and determine the acid-base disturbance to help assess and treat the patient. Competent and accurate determination of acid-base disturbances takes practice. Still, the clinician who takes the time to understand the appropriate use of acid-base disturbances improves their clinical ability and helps enhance patient outcomes.
References
- Castro, D., Patil, S. M., & Keenaghan, M. (2022). Arterial Blood Gas. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing. Visit Source.
- Danckers, M. (2022). Arterial Blood Gas Sampling Technique. Medscape. Visit Source.
- Golamari, R., & Gilchrist, I. C. (2021). Collateral circulation testing of the hand- Is it relevant now? A narrative review. The American Journal of the Medical Sciences, 361(6), 702–710. Visit Source.
- Hamilton, P. K., Morgan, N. A., Connolly, G. M., & Maxwell, A. P. (2017). Understanding Acid-Base Disorders. The Ulster medical journal, 86(3), 161–166.
- Jain, S., & Iverson, L. M. (2023). Glasgow Coma Scale. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing. Visit Source.
- Jarvis, M. A., Jarvis, C. L., Jones, P. R., & Spyt, T. J. (2000). Reliability of Allen's test in selection of patients for radial artery harvest. The Annals of Thoracic Surgery, 70(4), 1362–1365. Visit Source.
- Mohsenian, L., Khoramian, M. K., & Sadat Mazloom, S. (2018). Prognostic value of arterial blood gas indices regarding the severity of traumatic injury and fractures of the femur and Pelvis. Bulletin of Emergency and Trauma, 6(4), 318–324. Visit Source.
- Romeu-Bordas, Ó., & Ballesteros-Peña, S. (2017). Validez y fiabilidad del test modificado de Allen: una revisión sistemática y metanálisis [Reliability and validity of the modified Allen test: a systematic review and metanalysis]. Emergencias : revista de la Sociedad Espanola de Medicina de Emergencias, 29(2), 126–135.
- Sood, P., Paul, G., & Puri, S. (2010). Interpretation of arterial blood gas. Indian journal of critical care medicine : peer-reviewed, official publication of Indian Society of Critical Care Medicine, 14(2), 57–64. Visit Source.
Case Study 2
A 45-year-old female presented to the emergency department with severe diarrhea for the last two days. She has the following ABG results:
- Arterial pH - 7.26
- HCO3 - 12 mEq/L
- PaCO2 - 26 mm Hg
The pH is low. Therefore, the patient has acidemia. The low HCO3 suggests metabolic acidosis. The HCO3 is 12 mEq/L below the normal (24 mEq/L), which should (and did) lead to respiratory compensation with a 14 mm Hg fall in PaCO2 (the normal PaCO2 is 40 mm Hg). Respiratory compensation for metabolic acidosis is when the arterial PaCO2 falls about 1.2 mm Hg per 1 mEq/L reduction in the serum HCO3 concentration.
This patient has a partially compensated metabolic acidosis (the pH is not in the normal range, so it is only partially compensated). If the PaCO2 were significantly higher (above 26 mmHg) than expected, there would be a concurrent respiratory acidosis (e.g., an obtunded patient).
A concurrent respiratory alkalosis might be present if the PaCO2 was significantly lower than expected (below 26 mmHg). Respiratory alkalosis with metabolic acidosis is often seen in salicylate intoxication or septic shock.
The patient is noted to have a normal anion gap, consistent with a metabolic acidosis caused by diarrhea.